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Few of us can imagine life without access to our computers and the many ways they make our lives easier. From online shopping and social networking to simple word processing and organization of data, computers have essentially become crucial to our sanity and survival in the 21st century.
The computer was invented in order to automate mathematical calculations that were previously completed by people. Charles Babbage is considered to be the “father” of the computer. Babbage was a mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who saw a need for an automated system that would negate human error in computation.
But, it’s not just Babbage to whom we need give credit for the capabilities we often take for granted as we daily log on to our desk and laptop devices. When we think of a computer, we often consider a keyboard, monitor, and all that goes on inside without our awareness or even comprehension. We simply hit a key and expect the computer to perform a function. And happily, most of the time, it does – thanks to some very intricate and precise computer programming.
Without the programming behind the machinery, we would have a useless device at our disposal. Babbage’s concept of an automated machine was only the first step in bringing his ideas to fruition. He also needed to find a way in which to program the hardware to perform the tasks we would ask of it.
See, prior to Babbage’s notions, computers were not actually the hardware and software we know them to be today. A “computer” was a job title. And the job was performed by a person who, essentially, computed numbers all day long.
It’s fairly simple to communicate with a human computer and tell it what to do. The ease of the transaction is not as simple with a machine. Hence the need not only for the machine itself, but the programming that happened behind the scenes, the instructions that would dictate what it should do.
Here is where we must introduce a young woman named Augusta Ada Byron. She is often credited as the first computer programmer, recognizing that Babbage’s ideas had applications beyond what he initially hoped to accomplish. Together, these two masterful minds shaped the foundation for what we understand today as computer science and technology.
In the 1800’s, printed mathematical tables or logs, which were essentially very long lists of numbers showing the results of a calculation, were completed by the “human computers” mentioned earlier. It was likely one of the most painful, least glamourous jobs of the 19th century. People sat, hour after hour, performing calculations by hand and recording them in books. Think of it as the world’s longest math class. Not exactly what we’d envision as an exciting job.
But these calculations were vitally important. Understanding them and the data retrieved from their outcomes was central to navigation, science, engineering, and mathematics.
What Charles Babbage realized when faced with logs he knew to be fraught with error is that human computers are fallible, fickle creatures. Errors occurred in transcription as well as calculation . And those errors were often transferred to another set of calculations, thus creating a very complicated and convoluted mess.
So, with his ideas in hand, and presumably after quite a lot of trial and error throughout the process, in 1822 Babbage went on to follow through with his outrageous notion of automating these computations and created what he called the “difference engine”.
Babbage’s difference engine was designed to calculate a series of values automatically. It sounds an awful lot like a calculator, and in a sense, it was. It was intended to generate mathematical tables, just like those logs completed by “human computers” mentioned earlier, and automate the steps necessary to calculate the data. It was a simple device, however, and could only perform addition and subtraction, and a few polynomial equations.
Nonetheless, it was certainly innovative since up to this point, while physical labor was beginning to be moved to automated machines, nobody had considered such an idea for “mental labor”.
As with many innovative ideas, Babbage recognized the limitations of his machine, and in the absence of funding, the difference engine unfortunately never came to full fruition. Still, by 1833, Babbage had already begun thinking about how to improve his design and the functionality of the machine. Simultaneously, he had also recently befriended an integral player along the journey of the first computer, Miss Augusta Ada Byron, who we mentioned earlier as a key figure in computer programing and understanding and applying Babbage’s designs .
It is here that we’ll need to bring Miss Ada Byron back to the forefront as we progress through Babbage’s second undertaking. If you remember, Ada is recognized as one, if not the first computer programmer. She was the daughter of Lord Byron, whom many English majors may recognize as an influential figure in the world of poetry. Ada’s desire, however, was not to follow her father’s literary footsteps, but rather embraced her mother’s wishes that she pursue math and science.
Ada was fascinated by Babbage’s few early publications about his difference engine, and the 17-year-old soon became captivated by his work. The two quickly became friends after meeting in 1833. Babbage began sharing with Ada his ideas for a new machine, one that would surpass the difference engine and come to be remarkably similar in architecture to today’s modern computer, despite also never having been built to completion. Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
After Charles Babbage, the tabulation machine was invented in 1890 by the American statistician Herman Hollerith. It was a mechanical table builder based on punch cards. It can tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This device was used in the 1890 United States Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith tabular machine company, which later became the International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.
It was the first electronic computer to be introduced in the United States in the 1930s. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This device has vacuum tubes to exchange electrical signals for calculations. It can do 25 calculations in minutes.
The next major change in computer history began in 1937, when Howard Aiken set out to build a machine that could perform calculations on large numbers. In 1944, the Mark I computer was created as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
A generation of computers refers to specific advances in computer technology over time. In 1946, electronic paths called circuits were created for counting. Replaced gears and other mechanical components used for counting in previous computing machines. In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the circuits of the previous generation. The downsizing helped increase the speed, memory and power of computers. There are five generations of computers described below.
The first generation computers (1946-1959) were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the main components of CPU and memory. These computers relied heavily on batch operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation.
Some of the popular first generation computers are:
Computer History
The first counting machine was used by primitive people. They used wood, stone and bone as counting tools. As the human mind and technology improved over time, more computing devices developed. Some popular computing devices that start from the beginning to the end are described below.
The history of the computer begins with the birth of the abacus, which is thought to be the first computer. The Chinese are said to have invented the abacus about 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden shelf with metal bars and beads mounted on it. The beads were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules for arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries such as China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown below.
Computer abacus 1
Napier bones
It was a hand-held calculator invented by John Napier (1517-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculation tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. Therefore, this tool was known as “uncut bones”. It was also the first machine to use a decimal point.
Computer diaper bones 1
Pascaline
Pascal is also known as a calculator or extra machine. It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by the French mathematician and philosopher Bayes Pascal. It is believed to have been the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
Pascal invented the device to help his father, a tax accountant. He could only do addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel spins one turn, it spins the neighbor wheel. A series of windows are given at the top of the wheels to read the whole. An image of this tool is shown below.
Pascaline Computer 1
Step ladder or Leibniz wheel
It was invented in 1673 by a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. He improved Pascal’s invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator called a step calculator because it was made of flute drums instead of gears. See the image below;
Computer step calculator or Leibniz wheel 1
The difference engine
Designed in the early 1820s by Charles Babbage, known as the “father of the modern computer.” It was a mechanical computer that could do simple calculations. It was a steam calculator designed to solve number tables like logarithmic tables.
Computer Difference Engine 1
Analytical machine
This calculator was also built by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical computer that used punch cards as input. It was able to solve any math problem and store information as a permanent memory.
Computer Analytical Engine 1
Tabulation machine
After Charles Babbage, the tabulation machine was invented in 1890 by the American statistician Herman Hollerith. It was a mechanical table builder based on punch cards. It can tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This device was used in the 1890 United States Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith tabular machine company, which later became the International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.
Computer tabulation device 1
Differential analyzer
It was the first electronic computer to be introduced in the United States in the 1930s. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This device has vacuum tubes to exchange electrical signals for calculations. It can do 25 calculations in minutes.
Computer Differential Analyzer 1
Mark I
The next major change in computer history began in 1937, when Howard Aiken set out to build a machine that could perform calculations on large numbers. In 1944, the Mark I computer was created as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
Computer symbol 1
Generations of computers
A generation of computers refers to specific advances in computer technology over time. In 1946, electronic paths called circuits were created for counting. Replaced gears and other mechanical components used for counting in previous computing machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the circuits of the previous generation. The downsizing helped increase the speed, memory and power of computers. There are five generations of computers described below.
First generation computers
The first generation computers (1946-1959) were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the main components of CPU and memory. These computers relied heavily on batch operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation.
Some of the popular first generation computers are:
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of transistor computers. These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.
Some of the popular second generation computers are;
The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL / 1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;
The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming languages like C, C ++, DBASE were also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
Fifth-generation computers were introduced after the fourth-generation computers were invented. Fifth-generation computers, also known as modern computers, are still in the development stage and are based on artificial intelligence. In 1982, Japan was invented the FGCS (Fifth Generation Computer System). Computers of this generation are based on microelectronic technology with high computing power and parallel processing.
This is the most recent and technologically advanced computer generation. Modern high-level languages such as Python, R, C#, Java, and others are used as input methods. These are incredibly dependable and use the Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) technology. War. Parallel processing hardware and artificial intelligence software are used in computers.
These computers are at the cutting edge of modern scientific computations and are being utilized to develop artificial intelligence (AI) software. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a popular discipline of computer science that examines the meaning and methods for programming computers to behave like humans. It is still in its infancy.
In the fifth generation of computers, all high-level languages are employed. The primary goal of the fifth generation is to create machines that can learn and organize themselves. Artificial intelligence and parallel processing hardware are at the heart of this generation of computers, and artificial intelligence encompasses terms like Robotics, Neural Networks, etc.
The fundamental goal of this system is to make development in artificial intelligence and incorporate it into a new generation of extremely powerful computers that can be used by the average person. AI-based systems are employed in a variety of real-world applications and give a variety of benefits. When a specific set of knowledge and skills is required, systems are capable of performing well in scenarios that a human could encounter with the help of proper training. They do not, however, fit in situations where there is a need for tacit knowledge and a human can get it by talking in natural language and is concerned with form and speech recognition.
The usage of AI, which helps to make computers more powerful, is one of the primary elements of 5th generation computers. From navigation to browsing, AI applications may be found everywhere. It’s also used for video analysis, image processing, and other tasks. Artificial intelligence is projected to automate practically every element of computing.
Even though they are still in development, computers in the fifth generation are more powerful, functional, and speedy. Some of the benefits of computers that use ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology. The fifth-generation computers employ AI (artificial intelligence) technology, which includes expert system development, gameplay, and more. These machines were able to interpret human language as well as recognize graphs and photos thanks to AI technology. Fifth-generation computers are being developed to address extremely difficult tasks, such as working with natural language. They will, hopefully, be able to utilize more than one CPU and will be less expensive than the current generation. It is relatively simple to move these computers from one location to another.
Following are some features of fifth-generation computers:
The ULSI (ultra large scale integration) technology is used in this generation of computers.
Natural language processing is now in its fifth phase of development.
In this generation’s computers, artificial intelligence has progressed.
Parallel processing has advanced on these computers.
The fifth-generation computer includes more user-friendly interfaces and multimedia functions.
These PCs can be purchased for a lower price.
Computers that are more portable and powerful.
Computers are dependable and less expensive.
It’s easier to manufacture in a commercial setting.
Desktop computers are straightforward to operate.
Mainframe computers are extremely efficient.
Following are some advantages of fifth-generation computers:
These computers are far quicker than previous generations.
These computers are simpler to repair.
These computers are substantially smaller in size than other generation computers.
They are lightweight and easy to move.
True artificial intelligence is being developed.
Parallel Processing has progressed.
Superconductor technology has progressed.
Following are some disadvantages of fifth-generation computers:
They’re usually sophisticated but could be difficult to use.
They can give businesses additional power to monitor your activities and potentially infect your machine.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
The portable micro computer the “Portal” of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. The Portal was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of the French firm R2E Micral in 1980 at the request of the company CCMC specializing in payroll and accounting. It was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz. It was equipped with a central 64K byte RAM, a keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and 11 numeric keys (in separate blocks), a 32-character screen, a floppy disk (capacity – 140,000 characters), a thermal printer (speed – 28 characters/second), an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, and a 220-volt power supply. Designed for an operating temperature of 15–35 °C, it weighed 12 kg (26 lb) and its dimensions were 45 × 45 × 15 cm. It ran the Prologue operating system and provided total mobility.
An opened Osborne 1 (1981) computer, ready for use. The keyboard sits on the inside of the lid.
The Osborne 1 is considered the first true mobile computer by most historians. Adam Osborne founded Osborne Computer and produced the Osborne 1 in 1981. The Osborne 1 had a five-inch screen, incorporating a modem port, two 5+1⁄4-inch floppy drives, and a large collection of bundled software applications. An aftermarket battery pack was available. The computer company was a failure and did not last for very long. Although it was large and heavy compared to today’s laptops, with a tiny 5″ CRT monitor, it had a near-revolutionary impact on business, as professionals were able to take their computer and data with them for the first time. This and other “luggables” were inspired by what was probably the first portable computer, the Xerox NoteTaker. The Osborne was about the size of a portable sewing machine, and could be carried on commercial aircraft. The Osborne 1 weighs close to 11 kg (24 lb) and was priced at US$1,795 (equivalent to $5,350 in 2021).
The Compaq Portable was the first PC-compatible portable computer created in 1982. The first shipment was in March 1983 and was priced at US$2,995 (equivalent to $8,410 in 2021). The Compaq Portable folded up into a luggable case the size of a portable sewing machine, similar in size to the Osbourne 1. The third model of this development, Compaq Portable II, featured high resolution graphics on its tube display. It was the first portable computer ready to be used on the shop floor, and for CAD and diagram display. It established Compaq as a major brand on the market.
The first significant development towards laptop computing was announced in 1981 and sold from July 1982, the 8/16-bit Epson HX-20.It featured a full-transit 68-key keyboard, rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries, a small (120×32-pixel) dot-matrix LCD with 4 lines of text, 20 characters per line text mode, a 24 column dot matrix printer, a Microsoft BASIC interpreter, and 16 KB of RAM (expandable to 32 KB). The HX-20’s very limited screen and tiny internal memory, made serious word-processing and spreadsheet applications impractical and the device was described as “primitive” by some. In terms of mass storage, the HX20 could be fitted with a Microcasette Drive, which is powered and operated by the Main Unit. External Floppy Drives and even an Adapter for CRT output were also available.
The first clamshell laptop, the Grid Compass, was made in 1982. Enclosed in a magnesium case, it introduced the now familiar design in which the flat display folded shut against the keyboard. The computer was equipped with a 320×200-pixel electroluminescent display and 384 kilobyte bubble memory. It was not IBM-compatible, and its high price (US$8,000–10,000, equivalent to $22,000-28,000 in 2021) limited it to specialized applications. However, it was used heavily by the U.S. military, and by NASA on the Space Shuttle during the 1980s. The GRiD’s manufacturer subsequently earned significant returns on its patent rights as its innovations became commonplace. GRiD Systems Corp. was later bought by the Tandy (now RadioShack) Corporation. The Grid’s portability was restricted as it had no internal battery pack and relied on mains power.
The first contender for true laptop computing was the 16-bit Dulmont Magnum, designed by David Irwin and John Blair of Dulmison, Australia, in 1982 and released in Australia in September 1983 by Dulmont. This battery-powered device included an 80 character × 8 line display in a lid that closed against the keyboard. The Dulmont was thus the first computer that could be taken anywhere and offered significant computing potential on the user’s laptop (though weighing in at 4.8 kg (11 lb)). It was based on the MS-DOS operating system and applications stored in ROM (A:) and also supported removable modules in expansion slots (B: and C:) that could be custom programmed EPROM or standard word processing and spreadsheet applications. The Magnum could suspend and retain memory in battery-backed CMOS RAM, including a RAM Disk (D:). A separate expansion box provided dual 5.25-inch floppy or 10 MB hard disk storage. The product was marketed internationally from 1984 to 1986.Dulmont was eventually taken over by Time Office Computers, who relabeled the brand “Kookaburra” and marketed 16- and 25-line LCD display versions.
Two other noteworthy early laptops were the Sharp PC-5000 (similar in many respects to the Dulmont Magnum) and the Gavilan SC, announced in 1983 but first sold in 1984, Gavilan filing bankruptcy the same year. Both ran the 8/16-bit Intel 8088 CPU. The Gavilan was notably the first computer to be marketed as a “laptop”. It was equipped with an internal floppy disk drive and a pioneering touchpad-like pointing device, installed on a panel above the keyboard. Like the GRiD Compass, the Gavilan and the Sharp were housed in clamshell cases, but they were partly IBM-compatible, although primarily running their own system software. Both had LCDs, and could connect to optional external printers.
The year 1983 also saw the launch of what was probably the biggest-selling early laptop, the 8-bit Kyocera Kyotronic 85. Owing much to the design of the previous Epson HX-20, and although at first a slow seller in Japan, it was quickly licensed by Tandy Corporation, Olivetti, and NEC, who recognised its potential and marketed it respectively as the TRS-80 Model 100 line (or Tandy 100), Olivetti M-10, and NEC PC-8201.The machines ran on standard AA batteries. The Tandy’s built-in programs, including a BASIC interpreter, a text editor, and a terminal program, were supplied by Microsoft, and were written in part by Bill Gates himself. The computer was not a clamshell, but provided a tiltable 8 line × 40-character LCD screen above a full-travel keyboard. With its internal modem, it was a highly portable communications terminal. Due to its portability, good battery life (and ease of replacement), reliability (it had no moving parts), and low price (as little as US$300), the model was highly regarded, becoming a favorite among journalists. It weighed less than 2 kg (4.4 lb) with dimensions of 30×21.5×4.5 centimeters (12×8½×1¾ in). Initial specifications included 8 kilobytes of RAM (expandable to 24 KB) and a 3 MHz processor. The machine was in fact about the size of a paper notebook, but the term had yet to come into use and it was generally described as a “portable” computer.
Data General’s introduction of the Data General/One (DG-1) in 1984 is one of the few cases of a minicomputer company introducing a breakthrough PC product. Considered genuinely portable, rather than “luggable”, it was a nine-pound battery-powered MS-DOS machine equipped with dual 31⁄2-inch diskettes, a 79-key full-stroke keyboard, 128 KB to 512 KB of RAM, and a monochrome LCD screen capable of either the full-sized standard 80×25 characters or full CGA graphics (640×200).
Although it was not released until 1985, well after the decline of CP/M as a major operating system, the Bondwell 2 is one of only a handful of CP/M laptops. It used an 8-bit Z-80 CPU running at 4 MHz, had 64 KBs of RAM, and a 3.5″ floppy disk drive built in, which was unusual for CP/M laptops. The flip-up LCD display’s resolution was 640×200 pixels. Bondwell 2 also included MicroPro’s complete line of CP/M software, including WordStar. The Bondwell 2 was capable of displaying bitmapped graphics. The price of the Bondwell 2 was listed at $995.
Kaypro 2000
Possibly the first commercial IBM-compatible laptop was the 8/16-bit Kaypro 2000, introduced in 1985. With its brushed aluminum clamshell case, it was remarkably similar in design to modern laptops. It featured a 25 line by 80 character LCD, a detachable keyboard, and a pop-up 90 mm (3.5-inch) floppy drive.
Toshiba launched the 8/16-bit Toshiba T1100 in 1985, and has subsequently described it as “the world’s first mass-market laptop computer”. It did not have a hard drive, and ran entirely from floppy disks. The CPU was a 4.77 MHz Intel 80C88, a lower-power-consumption variation of the popular Intel 8088, and the display was a monochrome, 640×200 LCD. It was followed in 1987 by the T1000 and T1200. Although limited floppy-based DOS machines, with the operating system stored in ROM on the T1000, the Toshiba models were small and light enough to be carried in a backpack, and could be run from Ni-Cd batteries. They also introduced the now-standard “resume” feature to DOS-based machines: the computer could be paused between sessions without having to be restarted each time.
Also among the first commercial IBM-compatible laptops was the 8/16-bit IBM PC Convertible, introduced in 1986. It had a CGA-compatible LCD and two 720 KB 3.5-inch floppy drives. It weighed 13 pounds (5.9 kg).
The Epson L3s was an early portable computer that ran MS-DOS and featured a parallel port.
The first laptops successful on a large scale came in large part due to a RFP by the U.S. Air Force in 1987. This contract would eventually lead to the purchase of over 200,000 laptops. Competition to supply this contract was fierce and the major PC companies of the time; IBM, Toshiba, Compaq, NEC, and Zenith Data Systems (ZDS), rushed to develop laptops in an attempt to win this deal. ZDS, which had earlier won a landmark deal with the IRS for its Z-171, was awarded this contract for its Supersport series. The Supersport series was originally launched with an Intel 8086 processor, dual floppy disk drives, a backlit, blue-and-white STN LCD screen, and a NiCd battery pack. Later models featured a 16-bit Intel 80286 processor and a 20 MB hard disk drive. On the strength of this deal, ZDS became the world’s largest laptop supplier in 1987 and 1988. ZDS partnered with Tottori Sanyo in the design and manufacturing of these laptops. This relationship is notable because it was the first deal between a major brand and an Asian original equipment manufacturer.
In 1987, HP released a portable version of their 16-bit Vectra CS computer. It had the classic laptop configuration (keyboard and monitor closes up clam-shell style in order to carry), however, it was very heavy and fairly large. It had a full-size keyboard (with separate numeric keypad) and a large amber LCD screen. While it was offered with dual 3.5-inch floppy disk drives, the most common configuration was a 20 MB hard drive and a single floppy drive. It was one of the first machines with a 1.44 MB density 3.5-inch disk drive.
Another notable computer was the 8-bit Cambridge Z88, designed by Clive Sinclair, introduced in 1988. About the size of an A4 sheet of paper as well, it ran on standard batteries, and contained basic spreadsheet, word processing, and communications programs. It anticipated the future miniaturization of the portable computer, and as a ROM-based machine with a small display, can – like the TRS-80 Model 100 – also be seen as a forerunner of the personal digital assistant.
By the end of the 1980s, laptop computers were becoming popular among business people. The 16-bit COMPAQ SLT/286 debuted in October 1988, being the first battery-powered laptop to support an internal hard disk drive and a VGA compatible LCD screen. It weighed 14 lb (6.4 kg).
The NEC UltraLite, released in October 1988, was perhaps the first “notebook” computer, weighing just 2 kg (4.4 lb), which was achieved by obviating floppy or hard drive, it was powered by the NEC V30 16-bit CPU. The very restrictive 2 megabyte RAM drive cramped the product’s utility. Although portable computers with clamshell LCD screens already existed at the time of its release, the Ultralite was the first computer in a notebook form-factor. It was significantly smaller than all earlier portable computers and could be carried like a notebook and its clamshell LCD folded over the body like a book cover.
Apple Macintosh Portable (1989)
Apple’s first laptop product was the 16-bit lead-acid battery powered 7.2 kg (16 lb) Macintosh Portable released in September 1989. The Portable pioneered inclusion of a pointing device (a trackball) in the laptop/portable sphere.
IBM PS/2 note
The IBM PS/2 note was a first IBM laptop with clamshell design, and the 1992’s CL57sx model was IBM’s first commercial laptop with color screen; the introduced options and features include the now-common peripherals-oriented PS/2 port as mobile device option, introduced the laptop BIOS and predecessor of laptop docking station (IBM Communications Cartridge).
The Apple PowerBook series, introduced in October 1991, pioneered changes that are now de facto standards on laptops, including room for a palm rest.
Later PowerBooks featured optional color displays (PowerBook 165c, 1993), and first true touchpad (PowerBook 500 series, 1994), first 16-bit stereo audio, and first built-in Ethernet network adapter (PowerBook 500, 1994).
Introduced in 1992, IBM released its ThinkPad 700C, featuring a similar to PS/2 line clamshell design (though with a distinctive red TrackPoint pointing device). The ThinkPad laptop raised the new standard for business class of laptops, include modular design, durability standards and other productivity options, include first built-in camera (800 series, 1994), removable drive bays, secondary batteries and keyboard backlit.
Early laptop displays were so primitive that PC Magazine in 1986 published an article discussing them with the headline “Is It On Yet?”. It said of the accompanying montage of nine portable computers, “Pictured at the right are two screens and seven elongated smudges”. The article stated that “LCD screens still look to many observers like Etch-a-Sketch toys, or gray chalk on a dirty blackboard”, and predicted that until displays improved, “laptops will continue to be a niche rather than a mainstream direction”. As technology improved during the 1990s, the usefulness and popularity of laptops increased. Correspondingly prices went down. Several developments specific to laptops were quickly implemented, improving usability and performance. Among them were:
Improved battery technology. The heavy lead-acid batteries were replaced with lighter and more efficient technologies, first nickel cadmium or NiCd, then nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and then Lithium-ion battery and lithium polymer.
Power-saving processors. While laptops in 1989 were limited to the 80286 processor (often Harris CMOS) because of the energy demands of the more powerful 80386 on the original CHMOS III process, the introduction of the Intel 386SL processor, designed for the specific power needs of laptops, marked the point at which laptop needs were included in CPU design. The 386SL integrated a 386SX core with a memory controller and this was paired with an I/O chip to create the SL chipset. It was more integrated than any previous solution although its cost was higher. It was heavily adopted by the major notebook brands of the time. Intel followed this with the 486SL chipset which used the same architecture. However, Intel had to abandon this design approach as it introduced its Pentium series. Early versions of the mobile Pentium required TAB mounting (also used in LCD manufacturing) and this initially limited the number of companies capable of supplying notebooks. However, Intel did eventually migrate to more standard chip packaging. One limitation of notebooks has always been the difficulty in upgrading the processor which is a common attribute of desktops. Intel did try to solve this problem with the introduction of the MMC for mobile computing. The MMC was a standard module upon which the CPU and external cache memory could sit. It gave the notebook buyer the potential to upgrade his CPU at a later date, eased the manufacturing process somewhat, and was also used in some cases to skirt U.S. import duties as the CPU could be added to the chassis after it arrived in the U.S. Intel stuck with MMC for a few generations but ultimately could not maintain the appropriate speed and data integrity to the memory subsystem through the MMC connector. A more specialized power saving CPU variant for laptops is the PowerPC 603 family. Derived from IBM’s 601 series for laptops (while the 604 branch was for desktops), it found itself used on many low end Apple desktops before it was widely used in laptops, starting with PowerBook models 5300, 2400, 500 upgrades. What started out as a laptop processor was eventually used across all platforms in its follow up, the PowerPC 750 AKA G3.
Improved Liquid-crystal displays, in particular active-matrix TFT (Thin-film transistor) LCD technology. Early laptop screens were black and white, blue and white, or grayscale, STN (Super Twist Nematic) passive-matrix LCDs prone to heavy shadows, ghosting and blurry movement (some portable computer screens were sharper monochrome plasma displays, but these drew too much current to be powered by batteries). Color STN screens were used for some time although their viewing quality was poor. By about 1991, two new color LCD technologies hit the mainstream market in a big way; Dual STN and TFT. The Dual STN screens solved many of the viewing problems of STN at a very affordable price and the TFT screens offered excellent viewing quality although initially at a steep price. DSTN continued to offer a significant cost advantage over TFT until the mid-90s before the cost delta dropped to the point that DSTN was no longer used in notebooks. Improvements in production technology meant displays became larger, sharper, had higher native resolutions, faster response time and could display color with great accuracy, making them an acceptable substitute for a traditional CRT monitor.
Improved storage technology. Early laptops and portables had only floppy disk drives. As thin, high-capacity hard disk drives with higher reliability and shock resistance and lower power consumption became available, users could store their work on laptop computers and take it with them. The 3.5″ HDD was created initially as a response to the needs of notebook designers that needed smaller, lower power consumption products. With continuing pressure to shrink the notebook size even further, the 2.5″ HDD was introduced. One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) and other new laptops use Flash RAM (non volatile, non mechanical memory device) instead of the mechanical hard disk.
Improved connectivity. Internal modems and standard serial, parallel, and PS/2 ports on IBM PC-compatible laptops made it easier to work away from home; the addition of network adapters and, from 1997, USB, as well as, from 1999, Wi-Fi, made laptops as easy to use with peripherals as a desktop computer. Many newer laptops are also available with built-in 3G Broadband wireless modems.
Other peripherals may include:
an integrated video camera for video communication
a fingerprint sensor for implementing a restriction of access to a sensitive data or the computer itself.
In June 2007, Asus announced the Eee PC 701 to be released in October, a small lightweight x86 Celeron-M ULV 353 powered laptop with 4 GB SDHC disk and a 7-inch screen.[17] Despite previous attempts to launch small lightweight computers such as ultra-portable PC, the Eee was the first success story largely due to its low cost, small size, low weight and versatility. The term ‘Netbook’ was later dubbed by Intel. Asus then extended the Eee line with models with features such as a 9-inch screen and other brands, including Acer, MSI and Dell followed suit with similar devices, often built on the fledgling low-power Intel Atom processor architecture.
Ultrabook is a marketing term, originated and trademarked by Intel, for a category of high-end laptop computers.
They were originally marketed as featuring ultra thin form factor and light weight design without compromising battery life or performance, and when the term was originated they generally were enough smaller than average laptop models to qualify as subnotebooks.
As ultrabook features became more mainstream in the mid-late 2010s, explicitly branding laptop models as ultrabooks became much less frequent. As of 2021, while Intel maintains the Ultrabook trademark,[1] it is rarely used for new models and has been superseded in Intel’s own marketing by the Intel Evo branding.
In 2011, Intel Capital press officer Jordan Balk Schaer announced a new fund to support startups working on technologies in line with the company’s concept for next generation notebooks.The company set aside a million fund to be spent over the next three to four years in areas related to Ultrabooks. Intel announced the Ultrabook concept at Computex in 2011. The Ultrabook would be a thin (less than 0.8 inches thick) notebook that utilized Intel processors, and would emphasize portability and a longer battery life than other laptops By this marketing initiative and an associated million fund, Intel hoped to influence the slumping PC market against rising competition from smartphones and tablet computers, which are typically powered by competing ARM-based processors.
Lenovo ThinkPad X260 with Ultrabook branding
Ultrabooks competed against other subnotebooks, including Apple’s MacBook Air, which has similar form specifications and was powered until 2020 by Intel CPUs, but was not advertised under the Ultrabook brand.
At the Intel Developer Forum in 2011, four Taiwan ODMs showed prototype Ultrabooks that used Intel’s Ivy Bridge chips. Intel plans to reduce power consumption of its chips for Ultrabooks, like Ivy Bridge processors, which will feature 17W default thermal design power.
IHS iSuppli had originally forecast that 22 million Ultrabooks would be shipped by the end of 2012, and 61 million would be shipped in 2013. By October 2012, IHS had revised its projections down significantly, to 10 million units sold in 2012 and 44 million for 2013.Most Ultrabooks were too expensive for wide adoption. In addition Intel’s constant changing of Ultrabook specifications caused confusion among consumers; and this was compounded by OEMs that released slim/”sleek” or “Sleekbook” laptops (e.g. Hewlett-Packard Pavilion TouchSmart 15z-b000 Sleekbook, Samsung Ativ Book 9 Lite) that are cheaper AMD-powered variants of their more expensive Intel-equipped Ultrabooks. Overall there was a shift in the market away from PCs as a whole (including Ultrabooks) and towards smartphones and tablet computers as the personal computing devices of choice.
Intel banked on the release of Windows 8 as well as new form factors, such as “convertible” laptops with touchscreens and tablets with keyboard docks (“detachable”), and features (accelerometers and gyroscopes for touchscreens, hand-gesture recognition) to build demand for Ultrabooks. With the third generation Ultrabook specification, introduced in June 2013 alongside its new Haswell processor architecture, Intel also added the requirement for all future Ultrabooks to include touchscreens. The requirement, grounded in user experience research,was intended to prevent “game-playing” and market confusion from OEMs, who had offered low-end products with touchscreens but not Ultrabooks.
A Chromebook, is a laptop or tablet running the Linux-based Chrome OS as its operating system. Initially designed to heavily rely on web applications for tasks using the Google Chrome browser, Chromebooks have since expanded to be able to run Android and full-fledged Linux apps since 2017 and 2018, respectively. All supported apps can be installed and launched alongside each other.
Chromebooks can work offline; applications like Gmail, Google Calendar, Google Keep, and Google Drive synchronize data when reconnecting to the Internet. Google Play video content is available offline using the Google Play Movies & TV extension with the Chrome browser.
The first Chromebooks shipped on June 15, 2011. Other form factors include Chromebox desktops, Chromebase, which places the computer in an all-in-one unit, an HDMI stick PC called a Chromebit, and Chromebook tablets.
In 2020, Chromebooks outsold Apple Macs for the first time by taking market share from laptops running Microsoft Windows.
A surface computer is a computer that interacts with the user through the surface of an ordinary object, rather than through a monitor, keyboard, mouse, or other physical hardware.
The term “surface computer” was first adopted by Microsoft for its PixelSense (codenamed Milan) interactive platform, which was publicly announced on 30 May 2007. Featuring a horizontally-mounted 30-inch display in a coffee table-like enclosure, users can interact with the machine’s graphical user interface by touching or dragging their fingertips and other physical objects such as paintbrushes across the screen, or by setting real-world items tagged with special bar-code labels on top of it. As an example, uploading digital files only requires each object (e.g. a Bluetooth-enabled digital camera) to be placed on the unit’s display. The resulting pictures can then be moved across the screen, or their sizes and orientation can be adjusted as well.
PixelSense’s internal hardware includes a 2.0 GHz Core 2 Duo processor, 2GB of memory, an off the shelf graphics card, a scratch-proof spill-proof surface, a DLP projector, and five infrared cameras to detect touch, unlike the iPhone, which uses a capacitive display. These expensive components resulted in a price tag of between $12,500 to $15,000 for the hardware.
The first PixelSense units were used as information kiosks in the Harrah’s family of casinos. Other customers were T-Mobile, for comparing several cell phones side by side, and Sheraton Hotels and Resorts, to service lobby customers in numerous ways.These products were originally branded as “Microsoft Surface”, but was renamed “Microsoft PixelSense” on June 18, 2012, after the manufacturer adopted the “Surface” name for its new series of tablet PCs.
1.Apple
Apple is easily the most famous computer company in the world. It is a company that has inspired students, businesses, gamers, and just about everyone. The American multinational has its headquarters in Cupertino, California.
In addition to computers, Apple also designs and develops consumer electronics and hardware products. It is also a software company as it has managed to create a unique user interface that has attracted people in the millions.
The Mac line of computers and the iPhone smartphone need no introduction. They have redefined how we use computers. Founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne, Apple continues to reinvent itself each year by introducing new products.
Today, Apple has become the most valuable computer company in the world. It is highly profitable and a major innovator.
2.Hewlett Packard (HP)
Another popular computer company that has made it to our list is HP. It is an American multinational that has its headquarters in Palo Alto, California. HP offers computers, software, hardware, and services to the masses.
Founded by Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard, HP has come a long way. Walt Disney was one of their first customers. The company initially provided audio oscillators and similar equipment when it first launched in 1939. Then, it entered the computer market in 1966. The rest is history.
If you are looking for variety and affordability, then HP is the right choice. It offers computers in multiple price ranges to cater to the need of multiple demographics.
3.Dell
Dell is a company that is trusted worldwide. It is also an American multinational that is based in Texas. It sells computers, hardware, and services. Michael Dell is the founder of the company.
As one of the biggest tech corporations on Earth, it has produced some of the best computers out there. A great thing about Dell is that it never disappoints when it comes to performance. Every Dell computer is highly durable and does not experience any issues.
Most developers, designers, and professionals prefer Dell over other computers. Some say that Dell is the computer of choice for IT professionals.
4.Lenovo
Lenovo is an excellent computer company that is ranked at the top each year.
The Chinese multinational has headquarters in both China and the United States of America. It develops, designs, manufactures and sells computers, tablet computers, smart televisions, smartphones, and software.
There is no stopping Lenovo as it continues to sell a huge amount of computer units. The company is known for its affordability. If you are looking for a cost-effective computer, you can shop for one from Lenovo.
5.Asus
Asus is also an amazing computer brand. The Taiwanese multinational has headquarters in Taipei, Taiwan. It is the leading computer hardware and electronics company that you need to learn more about.
Offering a wide range of products, including laptops, desktops, smartphones, tablets, multimedia products, optical storage, graphics cards, monitors, motherboards, and networking equipment, Asus truly is a behemoth in the industry.
6.Acer
Acer is a popular computer brand. The Taiwanese multinational has headquarters in New Taipei City, Taiwan. It offers desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, displays, and storage devices. The hardware and electronics giant is also known for providing e-business services.
The company continues to grow. It continues to target heavy users such as developers and gamers. If you are looking for a powerful computer, you cannot go wrong with an Acer computer. It is designed to perform at its best.
7.Toshiba
A company that had to be included in the list is Toshiba. The Japanese company truly knows how to innovate and elevate. With headquarters in Tokyo, Japan, the company offers a wide range of products and services.
Besides providing computers, Toshiba also provides office equipment, household appliances, lighting, consumer electronics, medical equipment, infrastructure systems, power systems, communication equipment, and electronic components.
Computers produced by Toshiba are known for their durability. When you purchase a Toshiba computer or laptop, it will last a long time. Moreover, their computers are a great option for heavy users.
8.Samsung
Samsung is a world-famous brand. It produces amazing computers, laptops, smartphones, tablets, household appliances, and many other products. The South Korean multinational has headquarters in Seoul, South Korea.
The Samsung brand is instantly recognizable. Anyone that uses a Samsung computer knows that it is reliable. You can never go wrong with Samsung. It is the perfect brand to shop for a computer.
9.LG
LG is a company that has been offering electronic products for a long time. The South Korean multinational caters to a diverse customer base. It continues to produce new products. Hence, you can expect to shop for amazing computers and laptops from LG.
Starting as an electronics manufacturer, the company went on to provide telecom products and chemicals. It has various subsidiaries that help the South Korean economy.
10.Sony
Finally, keeping the oldest company for the last, Sony is a company that requires no introduction. The Japanese multinational has headquarters in Tokyo, Japan. It provides electronics, entertainment, games, and financial services.
When it comes to electronic products, Sony is the leading manufacturer. It is a Fortune Global 500 company that has introduced some of the best products, such as the PlayStation, which catapulted it to new heights.
source:javatpoint , uplarn , history , computerhope , wikipedia , spinfold , zipitclean
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